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Field Notes: On the Importance of Being Flexible

6/23/2017

The University of Peradeniya.

Probably the most important advice that any of the staff at the US-Sri Lanka Fulbright Commission gave our group of Fulbrighters during the pre-departure orientation in Washington, D.C. was "be flexible." It may sound obvious, but it applies to many aspects of conducting research abroad. In this post, I'll address two areas where adopting a flexible approach proved useful- the aim of the research project and the site where the researcher is stationed. By being flexible, I was able to change my project from one that was going to be difficult to one that was actually possible, and I relocated from Kandy, where I had an affiliation with the University of Peradeniya, to Colombo, where the Central Environmental Authority (CEA) is located.

The nature of my research project completely changed before I had even left D.C. My initial idea was to study public participation in the environmental impact assessment (EIA) process by analyzing 3 case studies involving major development projects. N.C. Weerakkody had already written a terrific overview of public participation in EIAs in Sri Lanka, but I intended to do an updated and more fine-grained analysis.

To expand my network and seek the advice of experts in preparation for my project, I arranged meetings with people working for organizations that dealt with Sri Lanka- Bower Group Asia (BGA), National Democratic Institute (NDI), and World Resources Institute (WRI). During the course of those meetings, the general consensus emerged that I would not be in Sri Lanka long enough to gain the trust of villagers affected by large development projects and interview them with the expectation of getting honest and thorough responses. The term of my Fulbright contract was 3.5 months. I would need to be there longer in order to complete my intended project. Thankfully, the creative folks at NDI came up with a slightly different, but achievable endeavor- to assess whether the quality of an EIA varies depending on who funds a given project. Just like that, I altered my plan from case studies and interviews to archival research and quantitative analysis.

With my new project in mind, I planned on being based in Kandy, which was close to the University of Peradeniya. The previous head of the Geography Department, Prof. P. Wickramagamage, had big plans for me- teach 2 undergraduate courses and provide guest lectures in a couple seminars. However, between the time that I had applied for the Fulbright in 2015 and my eventual arrival in 2017, the Department changed hands to Prof. M.A.S. Jayakumara, who was key in writing a letter on my behalf to officials at CEA so that I could make use of their library, but who also didn't have the same kind of teaching commitments in mind (which wasn't necessarily a bad thing since I decided to teach an online course while abroad).

After spending 2 weeks in Kandy, I decided to travel to Colombo for a week so I could try and obtain the EIA reports I needed at CEA, which is located in the Battaramulla area. In only a few days time I realized that this was the place I needed to be. Colombo had the CEA, numerous think tanks, and educational institutions like the International Centre for Ethnic Studies, Lakshman Kadirgamar Institute of International Relations and Strategic Studies, Centre for Environmental Justice, Bandaranaike Centre for International Studies, and University of Colombo. So, after returning to Kandy I decided I would permanently change venues to Colombo, where I will continue to reside until the end of my Fulbright grant in mid-August. Right now I live in an Airbnb in the neighborhood of Ethul Kotte, directly east of Colombo, in my sixth different residence since I arrived in Sri Lanka on May 3rd.

In both of these instances, the capacity for flexibility paid major dividends. I am now pursuing a project along with a Sri Lankan scholar, Dr. Herath Vidyaratne, that I am confident about, and I am based in an area that has numerous opportunities for research, intellectual stimulation, and, importantly, diverse food options. When conducting research abroad, it is crucial to realize that your plans may change for reasons outside your control and you should be prepared for such eventualities. Staying flexible is a way to still get your research done while not winding up jaded or disappointed that your best scholarly intentions did not materialize into the outcomes you had hoped for.

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China in Sri Lanka: Emerging Donors in the Developing World

6/21/2017

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My Fulbright research project was inspired by an article I read in the New York Times back in July 24, 2015: "China's Global Ambitions, Cash and Strings Attached." I had recently returned to the US from my first visit to mainland China, specifically Xi'an, where I taught international relations at Shaanxi Normal University. My research up to that point had focused on countries in South Asia, namely Nepal and Sri Lanka. But my trip exposed me to the sheer immensity and impressive speed of China's domestic development. Forget "everything is bigger in Texas." China made Texas look like Rhode Island. But it wasn't until I read this NYT article that I began to ponder China's role in the development of other countries.

There are basically two schools of thought regarding the intentions and impacts that so-called emerging donors like China, India, Iran, and Saudi Arabia have on other developing states. One camp argues that emerging donors have nefarious designs on exploiting their fellow industrializing nations. These skeptics contend that emerging donors use some of their newfound wealth to fund development projects abroad that are primarily intended to benefit the lending country through the cultivation of new markets for exporting goods, acquisition of natural resources for manufacturing and energy, and extension of political spheres of influence. Unlike traditional donors such as the US, World Bank, Japan, France, Germany, and the UK, these new actors on the scene do not impose strict human rights, labor, rule of law, or environmental standards on recipient states, thus enabling anti-democratic governments and retarding progress toward Western conceptions of development (Naím 2009).

The other camp argues that claims of ill intentions and attempts to subvert democratization on the behalf of these emerging donors are overblown. China, for example, does not have a readily identifiable development assistance reform package like the Washington Consensus model that prescribed specific institutional and economic changes that countries would need to undertake in order to obtain funding from traditional donors. Some have even declared the idea that a separate "Beijing Consensus" (Ramo 2004) exists a "myth" (Kennedy 2010). Furthermore, empirical scholarship on the relationship between political factors and aid distribution has demonstrated that China is no more likely than Western donors to steer money toward countries based on their politics, and the Asian giant does not deliberately invest in countries based on their availability of natural resources (Dreher and Fuchs 2015; Gellers 2017).

Among emerging donors, China has grown to become a force on the world stage. In 2011, China overtook the World Bank to become the largest lender to developing countries in the world. Interestingly, however, China has a long history of working with or lending to other less-industrialized states. For instance, China has provided development assistance to other countries since 1950, and its approach to foreign aid (i.e. mutual benefit, respect for sovereignty, and self-reliance), was articulated by Premier Zhou Enlai in 1964.

The Sino-Sri Lankan relationship dates back to 1952, when China signed its first trade agreement with a non-communist state, Ceylon (the previous name for Sri Lanka). This Sino-Lanka Rubber Rice Pact signaled the beginning of an important economic partnership in Asia. Today, China is the largest lender to Sri Lanka. In 2016, China loaned Sri Lanka over $440 million, $100 million more than the World Bank and almost $300 million more than the next largest lender, Japan (see below).

Returning to the island in 2017 after a 4 year absence, I have observed signs of growing Chinese influence. As shown in the photos above, China is deeply involved in the development of large infrastructure projects and increasing business opportunities for Chinese living in Sri Lanka. My own research on environmental impact assessments has revealed Chinese funding for road construction, hydropower, and real estate development, most notably the controversial Colombo Port City project. It remains an open question as to what kinds of social, environmental, and economic consequences China's financial stake in Sri Lanka might have. While some believe Chinese investment is "crucial" to the country's development, others ponder whether reliance on Chinese loans will lead to unsustainable debt and land grabs. Only through further research and careful monitoring of impacts will Sri Lankans be able to determine whether and to what extent the 65-year-old Sino-Lankan relationship bears the fruits of improved living and economic conditions that can be enjoyed by all.

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Talking Trash: Unpacking Sri Lanka's Waste Management Problem

6/17/2017

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Both rich and poor burn trash in Sri Lanka.

Logistics remains an issue in waste management.

One of my first days in Sri Lanka, I walked outside the house where I was staying in the Heerassagala neighborhood of Kandy. Instantly my nostrils were hit with an unusual and noxious odor. A musty smell filled the air and I felt a slight stinging in my lungs. Then I beheld the source of this odious aroma- a white plume of smoke emanating from my neighbor's home. Like many other Sri Lankans, my neighbor was resorting to burning his trash in a cement pit an effort to get rid of it. This was my baptism by fire, my rude introduction to Sri Lanka's waste management problem.

According to the Waste Management Authority of the Western Province, this region of Sri Lanka occupies less than 6% of the island, but is responsible for 60% of the waste generated. Perhaps more importantly, 35% of waste is not collected at all, and in a survey conducted for an environmental impact assessment report in 2012, 96% of the respondents admitted to burning their waste. Such practices have deleterious impacts on humans and the environment, as burning trash produces harmful gases that are released into the atmosphere. These gases can negatively impact human health and contribute to climate change.

Sri Lanka's inability to adequately collect, process, and reduce waste made national headlines recently when a waste dump in Colombo collapsed, killing at least 28 people. This catastrophe was aggravated by several related issues- unsafe housing conditions, unjust exposure to environmental harms, the slow crawl or deliberate malfeasance of bureaucracy. It gave a black eye to the island nation and, more tragically, the loss of life was completely avoidable.

What are the causes of this environmental dilemma? According to G. Kumanayake (2013), the culprits are many and varied: inefficient local governments, poor strategizing at the national level, insufficient funding, the spread of low-income settlements in urban areas, market forces that introduce cheap and unsustainable products, lack of environmental health and safety practices among waste collectors, old technology, and limited land for waste disposal.

It's not as if Sri Lanka doesn't have laws and policies dealing with waste management on the books. Relevant regulations have been stipulated in the Local Government Act (delegating waste management responsibilities to local authorities), National Strategy for Solid Waste Management (providing a roadmap for solid waste management at the national level), and Technical Guidelines on Solid Waste Management in Sri Lanka (offering technical guidance for managing solid waste in municipalities), among others. But laws and policies are only as effective as the resources and effort directed toward their implementation. As Bandara (2011) argues, the evidence thus far suggests that Sri Lanka has a long way to go in terms of properly enforcing its "chaotic" regulatory framework.

How can Sri Lanka address its waste management crisis? Here are a few recommendations. First, the duties and obligations of the local and national authorities should be clearly specified in relevant legislation so that there is no overlap in responsibilities or buck-passing (van Zon & Siriwardena 2000). Second, the recycling industry should be formalized and informal collectors should receive training in order to help them earn higher wages and improve coordination at local and national levels (Hikkaduwa et al. 2015). Third, the national government should commit enhanced financial resources toward the purchase of new waste collection vehicles and subsidize solid waste management at the local level (JICA 2016) by supplying bins and trash bags at no cost to Sri Lankans (Bandara 2011). Fourth, civil society and government actors should work together to promote composting organic material, which could be used for energy (via biogas digesters) or fertilizer (Kumanayake 2013).

Through strengthening cooperation among varying levels of government, committing financial and logistical resources to the implementation of environmentally-friendly waste management practices, and raising awareness about the importance of proper waste disposal techniques, Sri Lanka can make serious strides toward alleviating its waste management problem, creating a more hospitable environment for the attainment of development that is truly "sustainable."

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The Art of Negotiation in the Developing World

6/16/2017

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The above Facebook post, written as a reflection upon a recent experience involving my negotiating the price for a service, drew both approbation and admonishment from my friends. Given the controversial nature of the discussion, I felt it was worthy of further explication. My point here is to elucidate the context under which this exchange occurred and describe how foreigners can respectfully navigate monetary transactions in the developing world, especially Sri Lanka.

This is Salon Sriyani. It's located just south of where I am staying this month, along a busy commercial stretch called Kotte Road in the Ethul Kotte neighborhood. Last week on a lark I came to this establishment for a haircut. It was around 7pm. There was one barber working on the only client in the place. The interior, as seen in the photo above, is spare, with concrete floors and plastic chairs. This is a local mom-and-pop hair salon. I waited a few minutes for the barber to finish his current job, and then it was my turn in the seat. The barber gave great attention to cutting my hair, confirmed with me the kind of clipper attachment I wanted used on the back of my head, and asked whether I wanted my beard trimmed as well (I hadn't shaved in months). After sculpting the edges of my hairline with a fresh razor blade (though unaccompanied by the use of hot shaving lather or any other lubricant), the barber finished his work and it came time to pay. I asked him how much I owed him. Without hesitation, he replied 150 Rs (roughly $1 USD). I did not argue. I told him I would be back and I did return, several days later.

The second time I came to Salon Sriyani, it was just after 5pm. The door was open, but the lights were off. As I entered the shop, I noticed the barber, fast asleep in a plank-like position in one of the plastic chairs. I worried about startling him, so I gently lifted one of the plastic chairs and tapped it lightly against the concrete floor. The barber awoke from his slumber. I asked him if he would be willing to trim my beard, which, aside from bestowing upon me a kind of caveman-like appearance, had become unmanageable. He agreed. Just like before he asked what kind of clippers I would like used. We concurred that a number 2 clipper attachment would be suitable for the occasion. Five minutes later, the task was done. I looked less like a vagrant and more like a rugged scholar. Then I asked the barber how much I needed to pay for the service. At this point an old man with wiry gray hair who had been lingering outside appeared in the salon. The barber conversed with the old man briefly in Sinhalese, and then reported the price- 150 Rs.

In that moment, I thought strictly in terms of how much I had paid for a full haircut and how much effort went into my beard trim. Without concerning myself with the exchange rate, I explained to both men how several days before I had paid 150 Rs for a haircut at that very salon. They deliberated again in Sinhalese and settled on 100 Rs. I gladly paid the charge and told the barber that I would definitely be back in the future. I showed the barber that his salon was listed on Swarm, a geo-mapping mobile app used to record the places you visit, and went on my way.

Given the level of criticism generated from my recounting this affair on Facebook, I thought about other experiences I have had in Sri Lanka and asked my Airbnb host, Channa, about what had transpired and whether, from the perspective of a native Sri Lankan, what I had done was improper. To begin, it is not at all uncommon throughout the developing world to have foreigners and locals pay different prices for the exact same goods or services. As a personal example, early on in my trip I went hiking with a friend to Mini World's End near Hunnasgiriya. In order to hike this trail, my friend and I had to purchase tickets at the Knuckles Conservation Centre. Tickets for foreigners are 662 Rs. Tickets for Sri Lankan school children are 5 Rs. I remember paying "foreigner" rates to visit cultural attractions elsewhere in Asia, such as the Swayambhunath Monkey Temple in Kathmandu, Nepal, and the Jing'an Temple in Shanghai. However, this situation was a little different. I was paying a private individual for a service.

I asked Channa what he thought about the issue. My gracious host explained to me how for services in Sri Lanka, there is often a price for locals and a different price for foreigners. These prices should ideally be fixed, so all parties know how much they are expected to pay. When you go to a major grocery store in Sri Lanka, for example, all items have the price clearly marked on the product. Channa remarked that the very fact that there was a discussion about how much I should be charged for the service suggests that the price was not fixed, and the fact that the barber immediately agreed to charge me the slightly lower price of 100 Rs indicates that I was initially given an inflated price.

The point of this post was to give more context to this recent event and offer some cultural insight as well. In a marketplace in which prices are fluid, travelers should be prepared to counter initial price quotes, as they may very well be inflated for foreigners. A larger point is that as an obvious foreigner living in the developing world, you have to become your own advocate. I have personally found myself having to advocate for myself more often out here in Sri Lanka than back home in the US. I have had to challenge doctors' assessments of my medical issues and their proposed treatment plans; I have had to yell from the back of a bus that we were approaching my stop so that I could make my way toward the front of the bus in time to exit at my desired location; and I have had to negotiate fares with trishaw drivers in Kandy who do not have meters and charge foreigners significantly inflated prices. This doesn't mean that the people in Sri Lanka are bad or only looking to swindle hapless Americans. It means you have to be a little more on guard than usual, and know when it is appropriate to negotiate the price of goods and services.

As Rabbi Hillel once asked, "If I am not for myself, who will be for me? If I am not for others, what am I? And if not now, when?" Perhaps by asking these questions and contemplating the context surrounding the actions of all parties involved, we can arrive at a greater mutual understanding in places with vastly different cultures and practices.

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Take a Walk on the Wild Side: Animals of Kandy

6/2/2017

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A toque macaque (also called rilewa in Sinhala)

A water monitor (also called kabaragoya in Sinhala)

One of the things that amazes me on a daily basis here in Sri Lanka is the sheer diversity of (and proximity to) wildlife. In order to demonstrate what I mean, I thought I would share two of my favorite animals that I have encountered along Kandy Lake. First, there are numerous toque macaques (left) traveling in troops and hanging out in nearby trees. These monkeys are quite familiar with humans, and are unafraid to greet you as you approach. They have reddish-brown hair and are noted for their oddly coiffed hair. Next, you can find water monitors (right) gliding up against the edge of the lake, emerging to crawl on the muddy banks. To be honest, the first time I saw one of these large lizards I thought it might be a baby crocodile. But upon further inspection I noticed the patterned skin, small, angular head, and wide body, and knew this had to be something else. The water monitor is the second largest lizard in the world, smaller only than the behemoth Komodo dragon. I usually observed these lizards in the late morning as I traversed the edge of the lake. Adults often swam around alone while the young stayed close to their protective mothers. These are but two examples of the kinds of animals you may find yourself shockingly close by when you visit Kandy Lake.

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Field Notes: On the Importance of Being Flexible

China in Sri Lanka: Emerging Donors in the Developing World

Talking Trash: Unpacking Sri Lanka's Waste Management Problem

The Art of Negotiation in the Developing World

Take a Walk on the Wild Side: Animals of Kandy

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